Understanding PFOA, PFOS, and PFAS: The Forever Chemicals
What they Are
Per– and polyfluoroalkyls (PFAS) are a large family of over 15,000 highly persistent synthetic carcinogenic chemicals. This information is according to the chemicals database (CompTox) maintained by the EPA. These that have been used in industry and consumer products worldwide since the 1940s. They have been used to make products that resist grease, water and oil. Notable examples include nonstick cookware (Teflon™), water–repellent clothing, cosmetics, and firefighting foams. They also include stain resistant fabrics and carpets and various types of plastic.
The most commonly studied PFAS are perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS). Under pressure from a class action lawsuit these two have been phased out of production and use in the U.S., PFOA (in 2015) and PFOS (in 2002), but other countries still manufacture and use them. The next most commonly studied are perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS) and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA).
Why They’re Called “Forever Chemicals”
During production and use, PFAS can migrate into the soil, water and air. They can even reach remote locations like the Arctic. Migration occurs through atmospheric deposition. PFAS (including PFOA and PFOS) molecules have a chain of linked carbon and fluorine atoms. The carbon–fluorine bond is one of the strongest in chemistry. Hence, these chemicals can’t be broken down or degraded in the natural environment.
Unfortunately, PFAS are almost impossible to avoid. They are found in our homes, our offices, our supermarkets—practically everywhere. PFAS are found in the blood and urine of people and animals globally. This is because of their widespread use and persistence in the environment. They are also located at low levels in various food products and the environment.
Why PFAS are a Concern
The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) states that PFAS are dangerous for three crucial reasons:
- Persistent. The structure of PFAS means they resist breakdown in the environment and in our bodies.
- Widespread occurrence. They move relatively quickly through the environment, making their contamination hard to contain.
- Bioaccumulation. Over time, multiple exposures and an inability to excrete these chemicals lead to a process known as bioaccumulation. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recently found that even minuscule levels of exposure over a person’s lifetime—as little as 0.004 to 0.02 parts per trillion (ppt)—can compromise human immune and cardiovascular systems.
What’s worse, manufacturers don’t have to reveal to consumers that they’re using them. The EPA doesn’t regulate or test for most PFAS chemicals.
Adverse Health Effects
PFAS are found in many consumer products and have been linked to adverse health effects. There is now a significant body of evidence to show PFAS are endocrine disruptors—chemicals that interfere with hormone role. Research conducted to date reveals possible links between human exposures to certain PFAS and some adverse health outcomes.
Women seem to be particularly vulnerable when exposed. According to the EPA the chemicals particularly put women from their child–bearing years into middle age at risk. A 2022 study involved 1,120 middle–age women. Researchers from the University Of Michigan School Of Public Health discovered a link. Women with higher blood concentrations of PFAS faced a greater risk. They developed high blood pressure. This risk was compared to their peers with lower levels. Further, in another study women exposed to PFAS have experienced menopause two years earlier than other women.
PFAS have now been linked to a wide range of health risks in both human and animal studies. These include various forms of cancer (kidney, testicular, and thyroid), and hormone disruption. They also impact altered metabolism, body weight regulation, and liver damage due to bioaccumulation. Extra risks include thyroid problems and risk of Type 2 diabetes in women. PFAS can interfere with vaccine effectiveness and reduce the ability of the immune system to fight infection. They cause decreased bone mineral density, which can lead to osteoporosis, and lead to reproductive harm. They delay the onset of puberty in girls and cause abnormal fetal development.
The National Toxicology Program (NTP) concluded that two types of PFAS, PFOA and PFOS, suppressed the antibody response. These chemicals were a hazard to immune system operation in humans. One alarming discovery is that PFAS affect immune response suppression. This means the COVID–19 vaccinations will be less effective.
Health problems turned up in the C8 studies. They included kidney and testicular cancer, thyroid disease, miscarriages, infertility, and dead farm animals. These studies monitored the health of about 69,000 people near a Teflon plant in West Virginia. They were exposed to PFAS in their drinking water. Researchers found PFAS in their blood.
“…and throughout the entire chemical industry no name more honored than DuPont. Contributor of many products that make life more secure, more beautiful, more livable…”
—1950s DuPont ad
The searing film Dark Waters highlights how key adverse effects of PFAS were known by chemical industry scientists decades ago. Still, they did not reveal this information to the EPA or the public. For example, the EPA issued a multimillion–dollar fine to manufacturer DuPont. The fine was due to the company’s “multiple failures to report information to EPA.” They neglected to reveal significant risk of injury to human health. They also neglected to reveal the risk to the environment from the PFAS perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA or C8).
Now, independent studies show PFAS can be toxic to adults and especially children, whose developing bodies are more vulnerable. Some PFAS have even been known to build up in fetuses before birth. PFAS cross from placenta to fetuses in utero. They also pass to babies through breast milk after birth.
According to an epidemiologist at Harvard University, the baby experiences a serum concentration of PFAS. This occurs after being weaned off breast milk. The concentration of PFAS in the baby’s blood can be surprisingly high. PFAS circulates in the baby’s blood. This means the baby has PFAS circulating in their blood. This concentration can be 10 times higher than its mother’s. This is because the mother is removing PFAS from her body. But, the baby can’t remove PFAS, so these chemicals build up in the baby’s body. Both the EPA and the CDC stress that the benefits of breastfeeding are significant. They outweigh concerns about infant susceptibility to the PFAS acquired when nursing.
Alarmingly, PFAS were detected in the breast milk, umbilical cord blood, or bloodstreams of 98% of participants. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) conducted this analysis. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) were involved. Another NHANES report suggested blood levels of PFOS and PFOA in people have been reduced. This reduction has occurred since those chemicals were removed from consumer products in the early 2000s.
Exposure to PFAS
PFAS are used in hundreds of products globally, with many opportunities for human exposure. Human exposure to PFAS varies by geography and occupation. PFAS are used in the aerospace, automotive, construction and electronics industries.
People are most exposed to these chemicals by drinking contaminated municipal water or private well water. People are exposed by eating food grown or raised near places that used or made PFAS. They also risk exposure by eating fish caught from water contaminated by PFAS, especially PFOS. Additionally, eating food packaged in material that includes PFAS is another exposure pathway.
By using products made with PFAS, or breathing air containing PFAS. Or by accidentally swallow contaminated soil, residue, or dust. These come from PFAS-containing consumer products like stain resistant carpeting and water repellent clothing.
PFAS in Clothing
PFAS are used widely in our clothing, shoes and accessories. These chemicals also cause pollution at every stage of production. At the PFAS chemical manufacturing facilities and garment factories, they often contaminate the air. They pollute the water and affect the soil of the surrounding environment.
Products coated in PFAS can also expose consumers directly during use. PFAS–treated apparel is washed and eventually dumped in landfills or incinerated. This process leaks “forever chemicals” into the environment at the end of its life cycle too. Pollution generated far away circles the globe, through ocean waves or rain, causing wide–reaching impacts.
A recent NRDC report titled Going Out of Fashion: U.S. The report was clear. Apparel Manufacturers Must Remove PFAS “Forever Chemicals” from Their Supply Chains. The functionality that PFAS provides is not necessary. It is certainly not worth the health risks. Humans lived just fine without these chemicals before. Brands can phase them out quickly if they chose to.
Now there are no laws in the U.S. (other than California’s AB 1817 bill) requiring manufacturers to warn consumers that an item was made with PFAS. There are certain keywords you should watch for. If you find words like “waterproof,” “stain–repellent,” or “dirt–repellent” on the tag, assume the garment holds PFAS. It is best to make this assumption to be cautious. If you see keywords like “waterproof,” “stain–repellent,” or “dirt–repellent” on the tag, assume the garment has PFAS.
Don’t be fooled by labels or promises that a product is “PFOA–free” or “PFOS–free.” Those two particular PFAS chemicals have already been eliminated from U.S. production. There are many other PFAS–containing substitutes in widespread use.
A minority number of apparel brands are taking action. Levi Strauss & Co., Victoria’s Secret, and Deckers have already removed PFAS from their merchandise. Other major brands, like Ralph Lauren and Patagonia Inc., have set time–bound commitments to do the same. You can check out PFAS Central. It’s a project of the Green Science Policy Institute. It offers a helpful list of products and brands that state they offer PFAS–free outdoor gear, apparel, and other products.
PFAS in Water
Water is a precious and vital resource. It is critical to regulating our body temperature, helping our brains work properly, and flushing out waste from our bodies. The Environmental Working Group (EWG) and Northeastern University collected data. It shows that water systems in 50 states are contaminated with PFAS. This contamination comes from more than 5,000 polluted sites.
The contamination comes from many different sources. Industrial (and still mostly legal) dumping of PFAS directly into rivers, lakes, and streams is one source. Another is the seeping of PFAS into groundwater from waste in our landfills. Additionally, burning PFAS-containing products and waste in incinerators contributes to contamination.
PFAS goes up industry smokestacks and returns to the earth in rainfall, getting deposited in our water and soil. According to an NRDC report, this pollution is often even more intense in already overburdened environmentally devastated communities.
For the last 30 years, the DuPont Chemical plant has steadily released these forever chemicals. They have contaminated Wilmington, North Carolina’s drinking water. Also in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and other major cities across the nation.
Multiple states, including New Hampshire and New Jersey, established tap water standards for certain PFAS. In the private sector, companies like Home Depot and Lowe’s have chosen to remove PFAS in their carpets and rugs. Meanwhile, a wave of clothing brands is making public commitments to remove PFAS from their entire supply chains. The FDA works to better understand PFAS exposure in the U.S. by testing the general food supply, including bottled water.
The Continued Threat of Newer–Generation PFAS
The EPA recently set limits on six PFAS forever chemicals regularly found in drinking water. This action is to tackle this massive public health and environmental crisis. The new rule sets an enforceable limit of 4 parts per trillion (ppt) for each of the two banned PFAS. These are PFOA and PFOS.
Four others—PFBS, PFNA, PFHxS, and GenX—are mostly used as replacements for PFOA and PFOS. They will be regulated using a “hazard index” approach. The latter three will have their own individual standards. These six new standards estimate that up to 105 million people across the country have PFAS in their tap water.
Manufacturers have started to use shorter–chain PFAS. Still, these new chemicals pose new issues. They also show an even greater health risk. A new study at Auburn University reported that short chain PFAS are more widely detected. They are more persistent and mobile in aquatic systems. Thus, they prove more risky to human and ecosystem health. Existing water treatment techniques are also less effective for short chain PFAS.
According to reports by the EPA, two newer–generation, shorter–chain PFAS were identified. GenX and PFBS are linked to similar health effects as the PFAS they replaced (PFOA and PFOS). Scientists, including those at California’s Safer Consumer Products (SCP) program, have called for PFAS being regulated as a class. The reality is these toxic “forever chemicals” need to be cleaned up, phased out, and then banned for good.
In 2021, the EPA released a PFAS Strategic Roadmap. It details their intent to increase research into health impacts. They also aim to limit pollution by PFAS manufacturers. Nevertheless, the Biden administration’s response has struggled to offer comprehensive monitoring. It has struggled to implement definitive regulations or start wide-scale cleanup efforts.
The problem remains. There are almost 15,000 PFAS chemicals in use. The EPA does not test for a vast majority of them. More comprehensive testing of drinking water samples from across the country found 26 unique PFAS. This includes a dozen not tested by the EPA. The most widely detected PFAS (among those not tested by the EPA) was perfluoropropionic acid (PFPrA), an ultrashort–chain PFAS.
Boiling water will only make PFAS more concentrated and more dangerous to drink. The only recognized way to remove PFAS (and other contaminants) from drinking water is by filtration. This involves using a granular activated carbon (GAC), ion exchange, and a reverse osmosis filtration system. This involves using ion exchange and reverse osmosis techniques.
Options are available for whole home systems. These are the ones recommended by the EPA. There are also point of use systems or filter pitchers. The effectiveness of these varies and it is important to follow manufacturers’ recommendations for periodically replacing filters.
But in case you plan to switch to bottled water, be cautious. In 2019, the Massachusetts Department of Public Health advised pregnant women, nursing mothers, and infants to avoid drinking certain brands. These brands had high levels of PFAS contamination.
PFAS in Food
Water flows through reservoirs and faucets. It infiltrates into groundwater aquifers. Our irrigation systems support and grow our crops. Everything relies on water including our food, which gets contaminated via the soil, water, and air where it is grown.
Many cattle drink contaminated water. They eat and feed on grass grown in soil contaminated by PFAS. This contamination then gets transferred to us through food consumption. Tests soon found PFAS in milk at many dairy farms. The tests measured 1,400 parts per trillion. This is more than 6 times Colorado’s current action level for milk.
In a 2018 study, the FDA assessed produce grown near a PFAS manufacturing plant. Of the 20 samples taken, 16 were found to contain PFAS. Studies have also detected PFAS in fish and shellfish sold for human consumption in the U.S.
In the U.S., recent research results show that locally caught freshwater fish are a major source of exposure to PFOS. In fact, one serving of freshwater fish can equal a month’s worth of drinking water with PFOS at harmful levels. It is advisable to limit consumption of locally caught fish like smelt, lake whitefish and walleye. To find which waterways are of concern, check the EPA’s list of programs. You can contact your state, territory, or tribal fish advisory contacts.
Research in the U.S. shows that low–income and BIPOC people live close to a site contaminated with PFAS.
One major concern in rural areas is the use of “biosolids“. This is the sludge that remains after wastewater is treated in sewage treatment plants. Biosolids are used as fertilizer in both farmland (agriculture) and home gardens. PFAS are found nearly everywhere at lower levels. Nonetheless, biosolids from sewage treatment plants are particularly worrying due to significant contamination with PFAS.
PFAS are often used to make packaging like pizza boxes grease–resistant or to make pans nonstick. In early 2016, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) banned three PFAS chemicals from use in food packaging. Since then, some states have passed laws banning PFAS in paper-based food packaging. These bans start in 2023. They include California’s AB 1200 as well as New York’s State Senate Bill S8817 and State Assembly Bill A4739.
Studies show folate reduces PFAS accumulation in the body, which protect against adverse birth outcomes and boost immune health. A high–fiber diet can decrease metabolic disease risks linked to exposure to PFOS, a type of PFAS. Although PFOS use has been phased out, it can still be found in drinking water, groundwater, soil, and air.
PFAS in Your Home
PFAS contamination extends to home goods as well. Everything from mattress pad, umbrellas, cosmetics and dental floss is treated with PFAS. Children in particular, often put PFAS–treated products into their mouths, are at higher risk. Designers of clothing and food packaging do not need to inform consumers about PFAS. Similarly, home goods manufacturers are not obliged to reveal PFAS in their products.
Getting Tested For PFAS
Through a project funded by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), the Silent Spring Institute created fact sheets. These sheets explain the process for testing blood for PFAS levels. They also created the PFAS Exchange, providing resources to help you protect your health. Read more on reducing PFAS exposure on the Consumer Reports website.
NIEHS offers a publicly available, searchable database of published scientific papers about PFAS. Filters give ability to create a specific query. NIEHS also provides fact sheets to the consumer including drinking water and your health and endocrine disruptors and your health.
The Future of PFAS
New kinds of PFAS are being developed, some of which have properties akin to existing PFAS. Exposure to these new PFAS is difficult to assess since they have had very few scientific studies. Researching PFAS chemicals is challenging. This is because there are many types. They often occur in complex mixtures and are used in various everyday products. More research is necessary to discover whether or not they are safe to use.
Global Action
A CBC Radio article from November 2020 makes a claim. It states that Health Canada has said close to 100% of Canadians have PFAS in their blood. It’s also been found in breast milk.
Canadian research has shown our freshwater fish also have high levels of forever chemicals. Great Lakes states are advising their residents. They should eat no more than one meal of smelt per month. This is due to high levels of PFAS in these fish. High PFAS levels in freshwater fish can disproportionately affect Indigenous peoples. Fishing is an important cultural practice for them. They also rely on fish as a staple food.
Provincial guidelines in Canada for fish consumption are inadequate. For example, the fish consumption advisory for the St. Mary’s River claims that the only fish noted to have PFAS is rainbow smelt. This is probably due to the advisories across the border. Still, it’s unlikely that only rainbow smelt contain PFAS. They are small fish that get eaten by larger ones, in which forever chemicals accumulate over time (bioaccumulation).
Federal Government Action
The White House has led an approach to advance clean drinking water and reduce pollutants. This works to find routes of PFAS exposure, understand associated health risks, and reduce the public’s dietary exposure to PFAS.
This approach is outlined in several Biden–Harris Administration factsheets. These include the Biden–Harris Administration Takes New Action to Protect Communities from PFAS Pollution (2023) factsheet. They also include the Biden–Harris Administration Combating PFAS Pollution to Safeguard Clean Drinking Water for All Americans (2022) factsheet. Finally, the Biden–Harris Administration Launches Plan to Combat PFAS Pollution (2021) factsheet is included.
President Biden’s 2021 Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act is also known as the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law. It is making available $1 billion in grant funding to the EPA. This funding will help communities on the front lines of PFAS contamination. It aims to reduce PFAS in drinking water.
Individual States Action
In Cincinnati, Ohio researchers discovered high levels of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), in young girls. This research translation story shows how they worked with local water departments. They implemented water filtering techniques to reduce PFAS in drinking water. This resulted in a 40–60% reduction in PFOA levels in girls and other residents.
The Sources, Transport, Exposure, and Effects of PFAS (STEEP) project is at the University of Rhode Island. It is identifying sources of PFAS contamination. It is also assessing human health effects. Additionally, the project is educating communities on ways to reduce exposure. The Michigan State Superfund Research Center is developing energy-efficient nanoreactors. These nanoreactors are capable of breaking the carbon–fluorine bond. This bond keeps PFAS from degrading.
Scientists at the University of California in Berkeley are working on containment options. They focus on aqueous film–forming foams used for firefighting. These foams are a major source of PFAS contamination. The Brown University Superfund Research Center has developed databases. These databases exploit land use data to pinpoint cities and towns at high risk for PFAS exposure.
A team at the North Carolina State University SRP Center is studying alligators in PFAS–contaminated water. They want to understand possible effects on the immune system. They’ve also developed a new high–throughput tool. It quickly characterizes how PFAS is transported within the body. It also helps explain how PFAS causes harm. In Massachusetts, the Toxic Use Reduction Institution (TURI) at UMass Lowell developed a PFAS factsheet. They also created the Massachusetts and PFAS factsheet.
NGO, Nonprofit and Environmental Action
The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) has partnered with the Health and Environment Alliance (HEAL). The University of California in San Francisco (UCSF) has joined them. They call for immediate action against these “forever chemicals”.
HEAL has made available new resources to raise public awareness. These resources focus on the harmful effects that PFAS can have on human health, wildlife, and the environment. FIGO, HEAL and UCSF have developed joint materials. Among these materials is this fact sheet. It helps health professionals take action. It contributes to advocacy and awareness–raising on PFAS. Read more about the recent investigation on PFAS in UK food packaging.
CycloPure, Inc. is a global materials science firm. They received a grant from the Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR). With this support, they developed a new way to remove hazardous PFAS from water. They offer affordable water pitcher–based filters for people concerned about PFAS exposure where they live or work.
The Waterkeeper Alliance in partnership with Cyclopure conducted a nationwide monitoring study to analyze PFAS in surface waters. EnChem Engineering, Inc. another SBIR project, is developing an innovative technology to speed up removal of PFAS at certain sites.
Small business AxNano developed a portable tool that relies on nanoparticles to quickly detect PFAS in samples. Their method is more affordable and efficient than traditional mass spectrometry. A study by the Environmental Working Group (EWG) found Teflon™ in many cosmetics. EWG’s website can be used to search for safer cosmetic alternatives. Clean Water Action conducts anti–PFAS campaigns. These campaigns inform legislators about what consumers want regarding PFAS. They also cover other toxic chemicals that harm the health of communities across the U.S.
Extra Resources
In the National Academies Sciences, Engineering and Medicine study, the Guidance on PFAS Exposure, Testing, and Clinical Follow–Up was created. It is a collaboration between the Agency for Toxic Substances, and Disease Registry (ATSDR) and NIEHS. This collaboration aims to evaluate the most current evidence on the human health effects linked with PFAS exposure. It also provides information in their Consensus Study Report Highlights. This information serves as a basis for ATSDR. They use it to develop advice for clinicians about PFAS testing. This advice helps clinicians understand how test results should inform clinical care.
The PFAS collection 2022, published in the Environmental Health Perspectives journal between 2018 and 2022, demonstrates the diverse areas. These areas show where skillfully designed PFAS-related epidemiological research and modeling is occurring.
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Sources:
PFAS Explained | US EPA
https://www.epa.gov/pfas/pfas-explained
Last updated on October 3, 2024
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/
PFAS chemicals overview | ATSDR
https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/pfas/health-effects/overview.html
Last Reviewed: January 18, 2024
National Institutes of Health
Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)
https://www.niehs.nih.gov/health/topics/agents/pfc
“Forever Chemicals” Called PFAS Show Up in Your Food, Clothes, and Home
https://www.nrdc.org/stories/forever-chemicals-called-pfas-show-your-food-clothes-and-home
Molly M. Ginty, Contributor and Courtney Lindwall, Contributor, on April 12, 2023, updated April 10, 2024
What’s in My Water, Clean Environment, Trace Elements in Well Water
https://www.clearwatersystems.com/forever-chemicals/
Posted on Mar 22, 2022
New resources available on health impacts of ‘forever chemicals’ PFAS
https://chemtrust.org/news/pfas-health-resources/
17 Jun 2021
PFAS are forever chemicals, and they’re everywhere
https://www.miamiwaterkeeper.org/pfas_are_forever_chemicals_and_they_re_everywhere
July 19, 2022
PFAS: The Forever Chemicals
https://cleanwater.org/pfas-forever-chemicals
June 26, 2020 | By Elizabeth Saunders
“Forever chemicals” in fish could be harming our health
https://www.cleannorth.org/2023/02/12/forever-chemicals-in-fish-could-be-harming-our-health/
By CleanNorth, February 12, 2023
Forever Chemicals (PFAs) and America’s Polluted Water Sources
https://rachelcarsoncouncil.org/forever-chemicals-pfas-americas-polluted-water-sources/
https://www.momscleanairforce.org/forever-chemicals-threaten-women-young-and-old/
June 29, 2022 by Diane MacEachern