The Repurposing Life

Recycled Polyester

Nearly half of the world’s apparel is made from polyester. But polyester is not a sustainable product. To minimize the problem of mass produced polyester, rpolyester is the best alternative. Rpolyester refers to recycled polyester, often called rPET. 

There are two ways to recycle polyester:

1. Mechanical recycling means that the plastic is melted to make new fibers. This process can only be done a few times before the fibers lose their integrity. 
2. Chemical recycling involves breaking down the plastic molecules and reforming them into fibers. This process maintains the integrity of the original fibers and allows the material to be recycled infinitely, but it is more expensive and requires the use of toxic chemicals.

rPET is recycled by melting down existing plastic bottles, then re–spinning it into new polyester fiber. Basically, rPET is made from plastic bags, bottles, and textiles thrown away by consumers, and is a great way to divert single–use plastics from landfills. Recycled polyester is a more sustainable option than virgin polyester. The production of recycled polyester requires far fewer resources than that of new fibers, requires 70% less energy and generates 54% fewer CO₂ emissions than virgin polyester.

rPET (like its virgin counterpart) is versatile and can take the form of many different feels and functions. rPET can be used to make everything from thin and light stretchy active wear to thick and fluffy sustainable fleece. Ethical fashion brands like Patagonia, prAna, and Reformation have been using them for years. 

While this does prevent plastic from ending up in landfills (or oceans), it is still non–biodegradable and takes hundreds of years to break down once thrown away. Even rPET will lead to the release of microfibers when washed without the use of a microfiber filter bag (like the Guppyfriend Washing Bag). Furthermore, rPET can only be recycled so many times before its integrity degrades to the point where it must be discarded. There are also concerns about the toxic substances in plastic bottles and their effects leeching and permeating through the skin of the wearer.

Certifications & Standards: Global Recycle Standard (GRS), Recycled Content Standard (RCS) and Oeko–Tex 100

Econyl

To cover our recycled material basics, Econyl is simply recycled nylon. This fiber, created by Italian firm Aquafil, uses synthetic waste such as industrial plastic, waste fabric, and fishing nets from the ocean, then recycles and regenerates them into a new nylon fiber that is exactly the same quality as virgin nylon.

This regeneration system forms a closed–loop, uses less water, and creates less waste than traditional nylon production methods. Waste is collected, then cleaned and shredded, depolymerized (to extract nylon), polymerized again, transformed into fibers, and then re–commercialized into textile products. Econyl is a promising fiber, far more sustainable than nylon.

Washing of Econyl is still associated with shedding of plastic microfibers that end up in our waterways, and in the ocean. So with this product, it’s best to go with seldom–washed items like sneakers, or use of a microfiber filter bag like the Guppyfriend Washing Bag.

Certifications & Standards: Global Recycle Standard (GRS), Recycled Content Standard (RCS) and Oeko–Tex 100

Recycled Cotton

Conventional cotton is one of the most common and most used fabrics. This natural fiber is light and breathable which makes it a wardrobe staple. But growing conventional cotton can be problematic: conventional cotton is one of the thirstiest and most chemical–intensive crops to grow. It requires a lot of pesticides and, as a result, has a negative impact on the planet, and the people who grow it.

Organic cotton, a more sustainable alternative to conventional cotton, has been booming in the last few years. It aims to minimize the environmental impact of cotton production by trying to remove harmful pesticides and other chemicals from the production process. Check if your organic cotton is Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS–certified) to ensure the highest production standards.

If you’re looking for the most sustainable cotton, however, go with recycled. Recycled or upcycled cotton is made using post–industrial and post–consumer cotton waste. According to the Higg Materials Sustainability Index, recycled cotton is a more sustainable alternative to both conventional and organic cotton. It has the potential to help reduce water and energy consumption, as well as help keep cotton clothes out of landfills—which is why it is considered one of the most sustainable fibers.

Recycled cotton prevents additional textile waste and requires far fewer resources than conventional or organic cotton. For every ton of cotton recycled, 765,000 liters of water are conserved. Cotton can be recycled from old garments or textile leftovers, which means the quality of the cotton might end up lesser than that of new cotton. Therefore, recycled cotton fibers are sometimes blended with new cotton fibers.

Many ethical fashion brands use this and for good reason. This means that your favorite ethical cotton underwear or sustainable blue jeans could be made from industry fabric scrap or other recycled cotton garments.

However, certification and regulation can be difficult because it’s hard to know from where the recycled cotton comes. It also becomes difficult to determine the exact blend of the recycled cotton, which affects its end–of–life disposal (compostable, biodegradable). Because a garment can be recycled into recycled cotton even if it bears some synthetic fiber blend (so long as that blend is 4% or less).

Certifications & Standards: Global Recycle Standard (GRS), Recycled Content Standard (RCS) and Oeko–Tex 100

Recycled Textile Fibers

A lot of research is currently ongoing in this field: making textiles from textile waste. As there is so much textile pre–consumer as well as post–consumer waste, it makes total sense to reclaim it and reuse it instead of discarding it. In the U.S. alone each year, the average consumer generates 35 kg of textile waste.

However, due to technological challenges, among them the difficulty to separate individual fiber blends, this type of approach to textiles is not yet widely available. We found the following brands and trademarks currently using such technologies: Circulose®; NuCycl™, Liva Reviva, Textloop™.

Jute

Jute is a versatile fiber. It is 100% biodegradable, recyclable, and thus environmentally friendly. One hectare of jute plants consumes 15–20 tonnes of CO₂ and releases 10–12 tonnes of O₂, making it a carbon negative crop. It has a high tensile strength and low extensibility, which ensures better breathability. Jute–made textile products are extensively used in packaging materials in other parts of the world.

Diversified byproducts from jute include, to name a few, its use in apparel, cosmetics, medicine and paint. Jute sticks are used as fuel and fencing materials. Jute could very well be the alternative to polyethylene and polyester–made products.

Conventional Cotton

Although it is a natural fiber, conventional cotton is far from environmentally friendly. Conventional cotton is mainly grown in warm arid regions, and requires a lot of water to grow. In some places, like India, inefficient water use means that up to 20,000 liters of water are needed to produce just 1kg of cotton. Meanwhile, 100 million Indians do not have access to drinking water.

Cotton, about 99.3% of it, is grown using fertilizers; and 95% of global cotton production is grown from genetically modified seeds. Cotton represents 10% of the global pesticide use, and 25% of the global insecticide use. About 20,000 people die of cancer per year, and women experience approximately the same number of miscarriages as a result of exposure to chemicals sprayed on cotton crops.

Most of the world’s cotton farmers, up to 99%, are located in developing countries where labor, health, and safety regulations are nonexistent or not enforced; and child and forced labor are common practices. Until recently, in Uzbekistan (the world’s 6th largest exporter of cotton), more than 1 million people were forced to pick cotton for little or no pay.

Organic Cotton

Organic cotton is one of the most natural fabrics out there. Ethical fashion brands use this fabric in just about every type of garment. It has the same quality as conventional cotton but none of the negative environmental impacts. It is grown from non–GMO seeds and without the use of pesticides, insecticides or fertilizers, so organic cotton farmers are not exposed to harmful substances.

Unlike conventional cotton, organic farmers use permaculture as opposed to traditional agriculture methods, including crop–rotation, mixed farming or no–till farming to preserve the soil. From an ecological standpoint, organic cotton farming uses 62% less energy and 88% less water than conventional cotton. That said, only 0.7% of global cotton production is organic.

Several organizations have established certifications for organic cotton. Certification is the only proof that a product is truly organic. These certifications used with sustainable and ethical cotton tell us that the cotton was:

1. grown without any chemicals or machine harvesting
2. processed without any chemicals leaving the final garment chemical–free
3. ensured fair pay and safe conditions for farmers

Certifications & Standards: The Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS), United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Marketing Service National Organic Program (USDA–NOP), Organic Content Standards (OCS), Better Cotton Standard, Internationale Verband der Naturtextilwirtschaft e. V. (IVN), Naturland, Fair Trade, Bluesign, and Oeko–Tex 100

Linen

Linen is another natural fiber that has been grown for centuries. Similar to hemp, it’s derived from a versatile crop: the flax plant. Are you familiar with flaxseeds? Flaxseed oil? Yep, that’s the one. It uses considerably few resources (such as water, energy, pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers, etc.). Flax requires 60% less water to grow than organic or conventional cotton. And on the plus side, every part of the plant is used, so nothing is wasted. Linen is strong, naturally moth resistant, and, when untreated (not dyed or bleached), is fully biodegradable. It is light, can withstand high temperatures, and absorbs moisture without holding bacteria or mold. For this reason linen was my personal pick for making my linen fabric scraps bread bags.

Flax can grow in nutrient–poor soil that is not used for food production. In some cases, it can even rehabilitate and recondition polluted soil. Flax plants are carbon negative. That means they have a high rate of carbon absorption. Up to 2.1 tons of CO₂ for every ton of flax cellulose produced. For these reasons, we consider linen to be a sustainable material, even when it is not organically grown.

Certifications & Standards: The Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS), United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Marketing Service National Organic Program (USDA–NOP), Organic Content Standards (OCS), Bluesign, and Oeko–Tex 100

Organic Bamboo (Bamboo Linen)

Bamboo, which is technically a giant grass, can be harvested without killing the plant. That means bamboo can regenerate many times. Like hemp, a grove of bamboo consumes more CO₂ and releases 35% more O₂ than an equivalent cluster of trees. It requires very few resources and can survive on rainfall alone. 

Organic bamboo can be turned into one of the most sustainable fabrics—but that doesn’t mean bamboo fiber always is sustainable. Depending on which process is used, its manufacturing can be chemically–intensive. And as such, can have negative and harmful environmental impacts. 

Bamboo linen is a more environmental way to wear bamboo, it is often referred to as “mechanically processed” bamboo. Unfortunately, it makes up a minuscule amount of bamboo fabric on the market because it is more labor intensive and costly. Look for organic bamboo fabric in raw form as opposed to that which is plasticized into bamboo rayon/viscose.

Certifications & Standards: Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), The Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS), United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Marketing Service National Organic Program (USDA–NOP), Organic Content Standards (OCS), Fair Trade, Bluesign, and Oeko–Tex 100

Hemp

One of the oldest fibers in the world, hemp is extremely versatile: it is used as food, a building material, in cosmetics, and has been grown and cultivated for hundreds of years as a textile. Hemp helps keep you warm in winter and cool in summer, and gets softer the more you wash it.

Hemp fabric comes from the plant of the same name. The best thing about hemp is that it can be grown in most places around the world. It is a fast growing plant and requires very little water, energy, pesticides, or fertilizers. Hemp grows so fast that it produces 200% as much fiber per acre as organic or conventional cotton, and requires 50% less water.

The plant is actually good for soil, it can be grown in the same place for many years without exhausting its nutrients. In fact, it naturally fertilizes the soil in which it grows (through a process called phytoremediation). Hemp is also a carbon negative raw material. It actually absorbs CO₂ from the atmosphere. It also has many other benefits: like being naturally sun protective and antimicrobial—making it better for the environment than other crops.

Hemp has similar properties to linen, both crops are high–yielding, and once woven into textiles they are often difficult to differentiate. However, hemp is harder to grow, and as it belongs to the same plant family as cannabis (although it does not have the same narcotic effects), growing hemp is heavily regulated and even prohibited in many countries. Giving it a tendency to be slightly more expensive than other sustainable organic fabrics.

Certifications & Standards: The Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS), United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Marketing Service National Organic Program (USDA–NOP), Organic Content Standards (OCS), Bluesign, and Oeko–Tex 100

Cork

Cork has become a popular material for vegan bags and shoes. Cork is sustainably harvested from the cork oak by simply shaving away the bark of mature trees every 9 to 12 years. In fact, harvesting the bark from Quercus suber will actually serve to extend its life. 

While the tree regrows its bark, it consumes more carbon dioxide (CO₂) than most other trees. Thus, cork plantations can actually act as a carbon sink. Once it’s been harvested, the cork can be laid out in the sun to dry, and then just requires water to transform it into a material suitable for fashion. 

Lastly, cork is a valuable member of a unique ecosystem. It supports a range of plant and animal species and the continued use of cork is an essential component of keeping that ecosystem thriving.

Natural Rubber

Most of the soles of shoes manufactured nowadays are made with synthetic rubber which is different from natural rubber. Synthetic rubber is essentially plastic; whereas natural rubber is made from the milk of the Hevea tree.

Natural rubber, therefore, comes from a renewable resource. The harvesting of natural rubber does not harm the tree, but in fact helps the tree flourish. It protects forests from deforestation by giving value to these trees.

Rubber from a FSC®–certified forest is even better as it ensures responsible management of the forest. There is also a Fair Rubber Association label, ensuring a better living for natural latex (rubber) producers. Rubber is also biodegradable and easy to recycle.

Certifications & Standards: Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), Fair Rubber Association

Ramie/Stinging Nettle 

Ramie and stinging nettle, or European nettle, are plants used to produce a fiber similar to linen. They are not very common but are considered sustainable fibers. 

Sheep Wool

Wool as such is a renewable natural fiber. It’s long lasting and typically doesn’t require a lot of chemicals during the processing stage. Plus, wool fabrics can biodegrade naturally.

However, in order to meet global demands, most animal agriculture has been associated with environmental degradation and land clearing—and this includes operations that raise sheep for wool. Up to 1 billion sheep in the world are bred purely for wool production. Sheep eat by grazing, which when well managed, can have a positive impact on some types of ecosystems. But when mismanaged, can lead to overgrazing.

Overgrazing means that vegetation does not have enough time to fully regenerate before it is chewed back again and again down to the roots. The soil becomes weakened and vulnerable to erosion and desertification. About 30% of Patagonia, the geographical region that encompasses the southern end of South America, is affected by desertification, mostly due to overgrazing by sheep which are primarily raised for their wool. 

Sheep also release methane, one of the greenhouse gases (GHGs) that contributes to climate change, methane is 25 times more powerful than carbon dioxide (CO₂). Sheep are often subjected to insecticide baths which are not only toxic and hazardous to the farmers, but also to the sheep themselves. Residue from those harmful chemicals can remain in the wool throughout the manufacturing process and make its way into the finished garments we buy.

Certifications & Standards: The Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS), Responsible Wool Standard (RWS), Organic Wool Organic Trade Association (OTA), Certified Animal Welfare Approved (AGW), Humane Farm Animal Care Certified Humane® Label, Soil Association Organic Standards and Climate Beneficial™ Fiber by Fibershed

Merino Wool

Merino sheep are different from other types of sheep in that they have wrinkly skin, which means they also have more wool. When a sheep’s fleece is removed (shearing), the shearers often hurt the animals, cutting into their skin or hitting them to keep them still or quiet. Much of the world’s merino wool comes from Australia, where 94% of Merino sheep are still put through a procedure called “mulesing.”

Always look for relevant certifications at the bare minimum. Certified organic wool and the responsible wool standard guarantee that pesticides and parasiticides are not used on the pastureland or on the sheep themselves, and that that farms use best practices to protect the land, and prevent animal rights violations.

The gruesome practice of mulesing has been widely denounced by animal rights activists. Mulesing is the removal of skin from around the breech (buttocks) of a sheep to prevent the parasitic infection flystrike (myiasis). The scar tissue that grows over the wound does not grow wool. Ethical merino exists, especially if it’s sourced from New Zealand where animal welfare standards are extremely high and mulesing is not practiced.

Certifications & Standards: ZQ Merino Standard, Responsible Wool Standard (RWS), Woolmark and Climate Beneficial™ Fiber by Fibershed

Alpaca Wool

Alpaca fiber comes from the fleece of the animal of the same name. Alpaca is considered to be one of the most ethical and sustainable wools. Alpacas are related to camels and most of the world’s alpaca population is still raised in their native habitat of the Peruvian Andes. Alpacas are much more sustainable than cashmere goats, because they cut the grass they eat instead of pulling it out by its roots, which allows for the grass to grow again and again. Additionally, alpacas have soft padding under their feet, which are gentler on the soil than goat or sheep hooves.

The harsh environment of the mountain range (cold temperatures, low oxygen) has made for a hardy species that needs very little water and food to survive. Alpacas can subsist on only 1%–2% of their body weight per day. One alpaca can produce enough wool for 4 or 5 sweaters per year. Finally, buying alpaca fiber supports indigenous communities in Peru who often live below the poverty line.

Certifications & Standards: The Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS), Responsible Wool Standard (RWS), Fair Trade, Woolmark and Climate Beneficial™ Fiber by Fibershed

Cashmere Wool

Cashmere is one of the world’s favorite fabrics for super soft and warm sweaters. Its fibers can be as fine as 15 microns in size (a human hair is 100 microns). It is also fully biodegradable. Cashmere fiber comes from Cashmere goat hairs. More than 80% of the world’s cashmere wool is produced in China and Mongolia. It takes 4 years for one goat to grow enough hair to produce just one single sweater.

The main environmental issue tied to cashmere production is due to the fact that the goats pull the grass out by the roots when they eat instead of cutting it just above ground level. As a result, the grass does not grow back, leading to land desertification. Goats can eat up to 10% of their body weight every day. This ecosystem imbalance, combined with an overbreeding of the goats, has resulted in a real environmental threat. Mongolia is now suffering the consequences of this overgrazing by goats. The breeding of more than 20 million cashmere goats is the principal cause of the massive desertification threatening 90% of the surface of the country.

Unfortunately it’s a fabric that’s also been associated with ethical implications. Namely, surrounding the working conditions of goat herders.  Unlike conventional cashmere, which has negative impacts on the environment, there are a few sustainable cashmere options available on the market allowing us the possibility of buying cashmere without the negative environmental impacts: Sustainable cashmere® by Chianti Cashmere.

Cashmere can be sourced sustainably, so it’s important to pay attention to the details. Look for manufacturers that use hand combing techniques, as this preserves the fibers and there is no risk of cutting or scaring the animals as electric shears do. 

Some brands have even stopped using virgin cashmere fibers and only make recycled cashmere apparel. As far as sustainability, recycled cashmere is a far better choice for any cashmere clothing.

Certifications & Standards: Global Recycle Standard (GRS), Recycled Content Standard (RCS), The Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS), Responsible Wool Standard (RWS), Re–Verso™, The Good Cashmere Standard® Aid by Trade Foundation (GCS), The Cashmere Standard Sustainable Fiber Alliance (SFA), Kering Standard on Cashmere, Organic Wool Organic Trade Association (OTA), Certified Animal Welfare Approved (AGW), Humane Farm Animal Care Certified Humane® Label, Fair Trade, Woolmark, Climate Beneficial™ Fiber by Fibershed and Oeko–Tex 100

Camel Wool

Camel wool is considered to be one of the most sustainable types of animal fibers. As for animal welfare concerns with wool production, there have been few reported cases with camels. The camel from which this wool is obtained, the Bactrian camel, sheds naturally. This means there is little to no potential for harm or pain inflicted on the animal.

These camels are typically raised by small–scale, family farmers, in small herds which also means a lesser environmental impact. Camel wool is fully biodegradable and does not require dyes or chemicals for processing. However, it’s still a pretty rare find even among today’s most sustainable fashion lines.

Certifications & Standards: The Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS), Woolmark and Oeko–Tex 100

Yak Wool

Yak wool is an incredibly soft and warm alternative to cashmere. It’s harvested from either the fur outer–coat (which yields a coarser fiber) or the fur undercoat (which yields a softer fiber) of yaks raised free range on the Tibetan Plateau.  

Yaks shed profusely year round, and thus harvesting their fur doesn’t actually directly involve the animal in any way, and it makes use of something is technically waste and that would otherwise just biodegrade naturally. 

It also makes for a cash crop to the nomadic herders that look after these animals. Brands like United by Blue and Reformation have already begun using ethical yak wool.

Certifications & Standards: Responsible Wool Standard (RWS), Fair Trade and Oeko–Tex 100

Silk

Silk is a protein fiber spun by either “wild silkworms,” or, in most cases, domesticated silkworms—a material so soft the name is used as an adjective. It is a renewable resource, has natural antibacterial properties, it’s also biodegradable and fully compostable. However, as chemicals are used to produce conventional silk, organic silk is the better option.

Because conventional silk production kills the silkworm, animal rights advocates prefer “Peace Silk,” Tussah, or Ahimsa silks is a nonviolent production process that allows the silkworm to evacuate the cocoon before it is boiled to produce the silk.

The silkworms are bred under natural conditions (with no fungicides, sprays, or insecticides), live a natural life and eventually evolve into a moth. Peace Silk, also known as “Ahisma Silk,” is a humane type of sericulture that verifies its production under the World Fair Trade Organization guarantee system. Sericulture (the silk industry) has also been associated with slave labor. The video below breaks down some of the child labor concerns in the silk production industry.

Certifications & Standards: The Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS), World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO), Organic Silk OTEX-Certified

Leather

Leather is a controversial material. It will never be an animal cruelty–free product: it is made from dead animal skin after all. Conventional leather has been heavily criticized for environmental, ethical and social reasons.

First, leather comes from either killing 1 billion animals per year simply for their skin or from animals raised for their meat as a byproduct of the meat industry. So technically, it doesn’t need additional land or resources. Which is better, but not great since the meat industry is one of the largest contributors to greenhouse gas emissions and the heart breaking unethical treatment of animals.  

Second, the process of tanning leather requires around 250 toxic chemicals to transform the skins into wearable leather, 80% of the world’s leather production uses chemicals like arsenic, chromium and cyanide, which are equally bad for the environment as for the tannery workers. Plus this tanning process makes the skins non–biodegradable.

Those chemicals are often washed away into waterways, polluting freshwater rivers, lakes and oceans, putting 16 million people in the world at risk of chromium exposure. Tanneries in Bangladesh alone release 22,000 liters of toxic waste into local waterways every day. Also, most of the tanning factory workers around the world are not afforded adequate protective wear and suffer from skin, eye, and respiratory illnesses, as well as cancers due to their exposure to these chemicals. These tanneries also make use of child labor.

As for processing, “chrome–free” leather, which usually means aldehyde–tanned, is an alternative to chrome–tanned leather. That said, it’s been proven that this alternative’s environmental impact is very similar to chrome–tanned leather. Instead, look for brands that specify the use of all natural dyes or vegetable tanning. Still, even vegetable tanned leather isn’t perfect because it takes a long time to biodegrade, despite the fact that it’s a natural fiber.

There are few options on the market for sustainable leather: Ecolife™ by Green Hides, which creates chrome–free leather in Italian tanneries that recycle and purify wastewater; and the Leather Working Group, which is promoting sustainable environmental practices within the leather industry.

Ideally, the only sustainable leather will be upcycled so you’re just making the best of an unsustainable material that’s already done its damage. This is really the only legitimate ethical leather out there. If you’re choosing virgin leather, make sure it’s a byproduct; no animal should die for the sake of a coat or a pair of boots, no matter how sustainable the garment.  

Certifications & Standards: Ecolife™ by Green Hides, the Leather Working Group, Bluesign and Oeko–Tex 100

Down

Down is the innermost layer of the fine feathers of ducks and geese. Down has been used for a very long time as the insulation filling for pillows, mattresses, and duvets. It is a very long–lasting, light and warm material. But also receives a lot of scrutiny due to animal welfare concerns. Animal agriculture specifically that which involves ducks and geese, has been associated with inhumane practices.

The main ethical issue with down is that the feathers are live–plucked (pulled from living birds). A procedure that is incredibly painful for the animals. This practice has been denounced by animal rights groups for its cruelty. It is now banned in some countries for this very reason.

From a sustainability standpoint, down makes use of otherwise wasted byproducts of the food industry. Millions of ducks and geese are raised for their meat, down is one way to use the feathers that would otherwise go to waste.

When buying down, it is essential to look for “responsible” down. Look for certifications that confirm no animals were harmed purely for the purpose of harvesting their feathers. Or look for recycled down. Patagonia is a brand that has put out a very clear statement about their use of down and how they ensure traceability from farm to factory.

Certifications & Standards: Responsible Down Standard (RDS), Global Traceable Down Standard (Global TDS)

Rayon

Rayon is a fiber made from regenerated cellulose, generally derived from wood pulp, 30% of rayon and viscose clothing comes from endangered and ancient forests. The wood usually comes from eucalyptus trees, but any plant material will do (bamboo, soy, cotton, etc.).

To produce this fiber, the plant cellulose is put through a process involving a lot of chemicals, energy and water. Solvents used during the process are highly toxic to humans and to the environment. Viscose, modal and lyocell are different types of rayon, 5% of the global apparel industry uses forest–based fabrics.  

The other environmental concerns arising from rayon production is the massive deforestation involved. Thousands of hectares of rainforest are cut down each year, about 70 million trees, to plant trees specifically used to make rayon. Only a very small percentage of this wood is obtained through sustainable forestry practices.

Viscose

Viscose (also called Artificial Silk or Art Silk) is the most common type of rayon. Its production involves the same toxic chemicals that are harmful to people and the environment when they are released into waterways. There are a few sustainable viscose options on the market worth mentioning, such as Enka®, Eastman Naia™ and Ecovero™.

Lyocell (Tencel®)

Lyocell is one of the manufacturing processes of rayon, but it’s much more sustainable than its relatives modal and viscose. Lyocell is a light, semi–synthetic, or cellulosic fabric, which is made in a closed–loop system that recycles almost all of the chemicals used. “Lyocell” is the generic name of the manufacturing process as well as the end product fiber.

Lyocell is made from the wood pulp of eucalyptus trees. Eucalyptus trees grow quickly without the use of pesticides or fertilizers, or the need for irrigation. Just like rayon and viscose, lyocell is 100% biodegradable.

Tencel® is the registered trademark name of the Austrian manufacturer Lenzing AG, the world’s most reputable lyocell and modal producer. In the case of the Tencel® brand, only eucalyptus trees from PEFC–certified forests are used. Tencel® is said to be 50% more absorbent than cotton. In addition, it has moisture–wicking and antibacterial properties, which makes it perfect for active wear.

But not all lyocell is the same. We recommend looking specifically for brands who only use Tencel® brand lyocell, or are very transparent about their sourcing and manufacturing practices. Ioncell–F is another rayon developed by Aalto University in Finland, similar to lyocell but considered to be even more sustainable.

Certifications & Standards: Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and Oeko–Tex 100   

Modal

Modal is another semi–synthetic fabric that’s known for its comfort and breathability. Just as lyocell is made from the wood pulp of eucalyptus trees, modal is made from wood pulp of beech trees. While modal uses similar production processes as viscose rayon, it does so with fewer chemicals and far less waste with the same closed–loop recycling process of water and solvents used for manufacturing lyocell.

When it comes to brand name Tencel® modal, up to 99% of the solvent is reused. Theirs is also carbon–neutral and made only from wood harvested from certified sources–all reasons to prioritize brands that stick to Lenzing AG’s Tencel® modal.

Certifications & Standards: Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and Oeko–Tex 100

Bamboo Lyocell

Bamboo is usually sold as a sustainable fiber. However, to turn bamboo into fiber, the wood is processed with toxic chemical solvents that are harmful to the manufacturing workers, the consumers wearing the finished garments, and the environment when the chemicals are released into waterways. Bamboo fabric is a type of rayon often called “bamboo rayon.” 

You can find it in everything from ethical lingerie to sustainable sunglasses. Bamboo lyocell, like regular lyocell or Tencel® lyocell, is also made in a closed–loop process that reuses and recycles chemicals and water.

It’s easy to mistake closed–loop bamboo lyocell with bamboo rayon. Both of these require a whole host of chemicals to plasticize the pulp into soft fibers. Some brands and suppliers, Monocel for example, have started creating their own sustainable bamboo lyocell metrics. Either way, it’s important to delve into the details at this transparency and other types of third–party certifications.

Certifications & Standards: Worldwide Responsible Accredited Production (WRAP), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and Oeko–Tex 100

Ecovero

Lenzing AG, the manufacturer responsible for most of the world’s lyocell and modal production has recently released a new type of viscose fiber—Ecovero. 

Responsible for reducing emissions and water use by 50% over generic viscose, these fibers come from a variety of sustainable wood and pulp sources and meet the highest environmental standards.

Certifications & Standards: Global Recycle Standard (GRS), Recycled Content Standard (RCS), Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and Oeko–Tex 100

Orange Fiber

Orange fiber is an innovative fabric made from orange skins that is a byproduct of fruit processing in the food industry.  

Pineapple Fiber (Piñatex®)

Piñatex® is a registered trademark fiber manufactured by Ananas Anam that is essentially a food byproduct, made from scrap pineapple leaves that would be burned otherwise. It’s used in fashion as a natural, sustainable and cruelty–free replacement for leather and an alternative to vegan leather. It is also a boon for the farming communities that grow the fruit. Its popularity has risen of late so much so that it was featured in Vogue in 2017.

It reduces waste and can biodegrade naturally even when frequently combined with wood–based pineapple leaf fiber (PALF). Although, some Piñatex® brands cover the finished garments in non–biodegradable resins rendering them non-biodegradable.

The PALF is extracted from the leaves of the pineapple plant. PALF is also known as piña fiber. The piña fiber is mostly sourced from Thailand, Vietnam, Indonesia, Bangladesh and India. PALF–blended yarns can be used for a variety of textile applications, especially in the automobile industry.

The pineapple leaf fiber composites are a significant forward movement in sustainability replacing the non–renewable synthetic fibers traditionally preferred by this industry. In 2020, the revenue of the U.S. automotive industry was $1.249 trillion. The auto industry accounts for 3% of the U.S. gross domestic product (GDP).

These PALF composites have many positive features and benefits, such as: sustainability, biodegradability, tenuity (thinness), low cost and easy moldability (the property of being moldable).

Certifications & Standards: Oeko–Tex 100

Banana Fiber

Banana fiber, a lignocellulosic (plant dry matter—the most abundant raw material on Earth) bast fiber (the fiber around the outside of the plant that comprises one–third of its weight), is obtained from the pseudo–stem of the banana plant. Banana fiber has relatively good mechanical properties. Fiber cells, which are dead at maturity, serve as support tissue. This fiber is widely used often in medical textiles, but also in paper and crafts.

Banana fibers possess multiple advantages over synthetic fibers such as low density, appropriate stiffness, and mechanical properties; but do not carry any of the environmental problems as they are biodegradable and renewable.

SCOBY Leather

If you’re unfamiliar with the following terms, kombucha is a drink made with tea fermented using a Symbiotic Colony of Bacteria and Yeast called a SCOBY, and that same blob–looking bacteria can be turned into leather.

Laid on a mold, the SCOBY dries into a flexible leather–like pre–determined shape, after some finishing touches you’re left with mold–based vegan shoes, wallets, clothes, etc. SCOBY–based leather doesn’t require animals, is biodegradable, requires zero heavy metals or other tanning chemicals, and is of significantly lower cost than genuine leather.

S.Cafe

The process manufacturer S.Cafe has developed for creating fibers involves using ground coffee beans and turning them into yarn. The finished product dries quickly and even provides natural UV protection.

Qmonos

Qmonos is a Japanese fabric made from a synthetic spider silk that has recently been developed through the fusion of spider silk genes and microbes. The fiber is said to be five times stronger than steel, while simultaneously lightweight, more flexible than nylon, and entirely biodegradable.

No spiders are farmed or harmed in the manufacturing process, making Qmonos a more sustainable and ethical alternative to both silk and nylon.

Brewed Protein™

Brewed Protein™ is the newest sustainable fiber offering by Japan’s Spiber Inc., the same manufacturer that developed Qmonos. Brewed Protein™ is a silky protein fiber resulting from fermenting plant–derived biomass. The result is like something between SCOBY and QMILK.

Its versatility is its strongest attribute: as it can be processed into fine silk–like strands, cashmere–like yarns, or hardened into a resin similar to a tortoise shell. Aside from its broad range of applications, it’s fully biodegradable (without breaking down into microplastics), vegan, and produces far less greenhouse gas emissions than comparable animal–derived protein fibers.

It is too new to be widely available, however, Spiber recently collaborated with outdoor recreation gear retailer The North Face to create The Moon Parka, the first outdoor jacket created of Brewed Protein™.

Apple Eco Leather

Another vegan leather option, Apple Eco leather, called “Pellemela” as it was originally known in Italian (literally, apple leather) is made from the waste of the apple juice industry in Northern Italy.

It’s made by the Italian company Frutmat, which specializes in recycling biological waste. It includes 76% apple flour, obtained from dehydrated and powdered apple peel and cores, water and natural glue. The ingredients are finally compacted using a pasta roller.

On its own, it’s fully biodegradable, waterproof, breathable, and super durable. That’s why you’ll find it mainly in backpacks, wallets, handbags, sneakers and small accessories.

Certifications & Standards: Oeko–Tex 100

Woocoa

This alternative plant–based wool is made from hemp, coconut fibers, and mushroom enzymes. 

This vegan wool is not only animal–friendly, but is also sustainable. 

Mushrooms have made it into packaging, building materials, and now…fashion.

Cupro

Cupro (also known as Cupra) is an artificial cellulose fiber, a type of vegan silk alternative made with either recycled cotton garments, or cotton linter, a waste byproduct of cotton farming. Linter is the short fuzz that sticks to seeds after harvesting (the residual fibers left on the cotton seeds after ginning). Similarly to lyocell and modal, in order to obtain the semi–synthetic ready–to–weave yarn, the extracted cellulose is soaked in a bath of a chemical solution called cuprammonium, hence the “Cupro” name.

The process is made in a closed–loop. The large quantities of water and chemicals used in the production of Cupro are therefore continually reused until they are completely exhausted. The chemicals used are low in toxic and dangerous compounds. Cupro is also biodegradable, so it is a slightly more sustainable alternative to viscose. While it is both a recycled and semi–natural fabric it is one of the least sustainable of the non-synthetic fibers on this list.

For some brands, the main purpose of Cupro fabric sourcing is just to save money and maximize profits from accumulated waste in countries like China, read more on my post about greenwashing. Additionally, the fabric has been associated with a lot of pollution during its production phase.

If you’re wanting to wear recycled fabrics, choose recycled cotton, recycled wool, or recycled polyester instead unless a brand is truly and genuinely transparent about their Cupro sourcing.

Certifications & Standards: Global Recycle Standard (GRS), Recycled Content Standard (RCS), Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), ISO 14001 and Oeko–Tex 100 

QMilk

QMilk is a new fiber that has been developed for textile use.

Though QMilk is not vegan, the material uses casein a milk protein.

It makes use of a byproduct of the dairy industry to make a fabric that’s natural, compostable, flame retardant, and silky soft. 

Polyester

Polyester is the most common synthetic fiber found in garments produced in the fashion industry, especially by fast fashion brands. We can find it in about 52% of clothes on the market today. Polyester is a synthetic fiber derived from petroleum, a non–renewable fossil fuel. Each year, 70 million oil barrels are used to produce polyester.

The extraction and transformation of crude oil into petrochemicals; and the burning of refined petroleum release toxins into the atmosphere that are dangerous for human and environmental health. The petroleum industry has the largest carbon footprint and environmental impact. The production of polyester is also energy intensive.

One of the major problems with this plastic fiber, is the fact that it is non–biodegradable. It takes hundreds of years for polyester to break down. However, it only breaks down onto microfibers, it never actually decomposes or biodegrades.

Furthermore, each time we wash a polyester garment, 700.000 plastic microfibers are released into local waterways and end up in rivers and oceans, are eaten by sea life and ultimately enter our food chain.

Vegan Leather

Vegan leather is made of PVC or polyurethane, both of which are synthetic fibers that have the same devastating carbon footprint and environmental impact as polyester.

It is better in terms of animal welfare, but it is not a sustainable option.

There are some plant–based substitutes for leather, such as pineapple fiber (Piñatex®).

Other Synthetic Fibers

Acrylic, polyamide, nylon, polypropylene, PVC, spandex (lycra, elastane), aramide, are all synthetic fibers derived from petroleum and therefore have as tremendous a carbon footprint and environmental impact as polyester.